From: Subject: Behavior Problems Date: Mon, 10 Oct 2011 20:16:16 -0400 MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/related; type="text/html"; boundary="----=_NextPart_000_0000_01CC8789.770DE390" X-MimeOLE: Produced By Microsoft MimeOLE V6.00.2900.6109 This is a multi-part message in MIME format. ------=_NextPart_000_0000_01CC8789.770DE390 Content-Type: text/html; charset="Windows-1252" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: http://smhp.psych.ucla.edu/behprob.htm Behavior Problems

From Addressing Barriers to=20 Learning,
Vol. 2 (2), Spring 1997

Behavior Problems:
What's a School to Do?

In their effort to deal with deviant and devious behavior and create = safe=20 environments, schools increasingly have adopted social control = practices. These=20 include some discipline and classroom management practices = that=20 analysts see as "blaming the victim" and modeling behavior that fosters = rather=20 than counters development of negative values.=20

To move schools beyond overreliance on punishment and social control=20 strategies, there is ongoing advocacy for social skills training = and new=20 agendas for emotional "intelligence" training and character=20 education. Relatedly, there are calls for greater home involvement, = with=20 emphasis on enhanced parent responsibility for their children's behavior = and=20 learning. More comprehensively, some reformers want to transform schools = through=20 creation of an atmosphere of "caring," "cooperative learning," and a = "sense of=20 community." Such advocates usually argue for schools that are=20 holistically-oriented and family-centered. They want curricula to = enhance values=20 and character, including responsibility (social and moral), integrity,=20 self-regulation (self-discipline), and a work ethic and also want = schools to=20 foster self-esteem, diverse talents, and emotional well-being.=20

Discipline

Misbehavior disrupts; it may be hurtful; it may disinhibit others. = When a=20 student misbehaves, a natural reaction is to want that youngster to = experience=20 and other students to see the consequences of misbehaving. One hope is = that=20 public awareness of consequences will deter subsequent problems. As a = result,=20 the primary intervention focus in schools usually is on discipline -- = sometimes embedded in the broader concept of classroom = management.=20 More broadly, however, as outlined below, interventions for misbehavior = can be=20 conceived in terms of:=20

From a prevention viewpoint, there is widespread = awareness that=20 program improvements can reduce learning and behavior problems = significantly. It=20 also is recognized that the application of consequences is an = insufficient step=20 in preventing future misbehavior.=20

For youngsters seen as having emotional and behavioral disorders,=20 disciplinary practices tend to be described as strategies to modify = deviant=20 behavior. And, they usually are seen as only one facet of a broad = intervention=20 agenda designed to treat the youngster's disorder. It should be noted, = however,=20 that for many students diagnosed as having disabilities the school's = (and=20 society's) socialization agenda often is in conflict with providing the = type of=20 helping interventions such youngsters require. This is seen especially = in the=20 controversies over use of corporal punishment, suspension, and exclusion = from=20 school. Clearly, such practices, as well as other value-laden = interventions,=20 raise a host of political, legal, and ethical concerns.=20

Unfortunately, too many school personnel see punishment as the only = recourse=20 in dealing with a student's misbehavior. They use the most potent = negative=20 consequences available to them in a desperate effort to control an = individual=20 and make it clear to others that acting in such a fashion is not = tolerated.=20 Essentially, short of suspending the individual from school, such = punishment=20 takes the form of a decision to do something to the student that he or = she does=20 not want done. In addition, a demand for future compliance usually is = made,=20 along with threats of harsher punishment if compliance is not = forthcoming. And=20 the discipline may be administered in ways that suggest the student is = seen as=20 an undesirable person. As students get older, suspension increasingly = comes into=20 play. Indeed, suspension remains one of the most common disciplinary = responses=20 for the transgressions of secondary students.

As with many emergency procedures, the benefits of using punishment = may be=20 offset by many negative consequences. These include increased negative = attitudes=20 toward school and school personnel which often lead to behavior = problems,=20 anti-social acts, and various mental health problems. Disciplinary = procedures=20 also are associated with dropping out of school. It is not surprising, = then,=20 that some concerned professionals refer to extreme disciplinary = practices as=20 "pushout" strategies.=20

(Relatedly, a large literature points to the negative impact of = various forms=20 of parental discipline on internalization of values and of early harsh=20 discipline on child aggression and formation of a maladaptive social = information=20 processing style. And a significant correlation has been found between = corporeal=20 punishment of adolescents and depression, suicide, alcohol abuse, and=20 wife-beating.)

Intervention Focus in Dealing with = Misbehavior

I. Preventing Misbehavior
A. Expand Social Programs
1. Increase economic opportunity for low income = groups
2.=20 Augment health and safety prevention and maintenance = (encompassing=20 parent education and direct child services)
3. Extend = quality day=20 care and early education

B. Improve Schooling
1. Personalize classroom instruction (e.g., accommodating = a wide=20 range of motivational and developmental differences
2. = Provide=20 status opportunities for nonpopular students (e.g., special = roles as=20 assistants and tutors)
3. Identify and remedy skill = deficiencies=20 early

C. Follow-up All Occurrences of = Misbehavior to=20 Remedy Causes
1. Identify underlying motivation for misbehavior
2. = For=20 unintentional misbehavior, strengthen coping skills (e.g., = social=20 skills, problem solving strategies)
3. If misbehavior is=20 intentional but reactive, work to eliminate conditions that = produce=20 reactions (e.g., conditions that make the student feel = incompetent,=20 controlled, or unrelated to significant others)
4. For = proactive=20 misbehavior, offer appropriate and attractive alternative ways = the=20 student can pursue a sense of competence, control, and=20 relatedness
5. Equip the individual with acceptable steps = to take=20 instead of misbehaving (e.g., options to withdraw from a = situation or=20 to try relaxation techniques)
6. Enhance the individual's=20 motivation and skills for overcoming behavior problems = (including=20 altering negative attitudes toward = school)

II. Anticipating Misbehavior

A. Personalize Classroom Structure for High Risk = Students
1. Identify underlying motivation for misbehavior
2. = Design=20 curricula to consist primarily of activities that are a good = match=20 with the identified individual's intrinsic motivation and=20 developmental capability
3. Provide extra support and = direction so=20 the identified individual can cope with difficult situations=20 (including steps that can be taken instead of misbehaving)=20

B. Develop Consequences for Misbehavior that are = Perceived=20 by Students as Logical (i.e., that are perceived by the student = as=20 reasonable fair, and nondenigrating reactions which do not = reduce one'=20 sense of autonomy)

III. During Misbehavior=20

A. Try to base response on understanding of underlying = motivation=20 (if uncertain, start with assumption the misbehavior is=20 unintentional)
B. Reestablish a calm and safe atmosphere
1. Use understanding of student's underlying motivation = for=20 misbehaving to clarify what occurred (if feasible involve = participants=20 in discussion of events)
2. Validate each participant's = perspective=20 and feelings
3. Indicate how the matter will be resolved=20 emphasizing use of previously agreed upon logical consequences = that=20 have been personalized in keeping with understanding of = underlying=20 motivation
4. If the misbehavior continues, revert to a = firm but=20 nonauthoritarian statement indicating it must stop or else the = student=20 will have to be suspended
5. As a last resort use crises = back-up=20 resources
a. If appropriate, ask student's classroom friends to = help
b.=20 Call for help from identified back-up personnel =

6.=20 Throughout the process, keep others calm by dealing with the = situation=20 with a calm and protective demeanor

IV. After Misbehavior

A. Implement Discipline -- Logical = Consequences/Punishment
1. Objectives in using consequences
a. Deprive student of something s/he wants
b. Make = student=20 experience something s/he doesn't want

2. Forms = of=20 consequences
a. Removal/deprivation (e.g., loss of privileges, = removal from=20 activity)
b. Reprimands (e.g., public censure)
c. = Reparations=20 (e.g., of damaged or stolen property)
d. Recantations = (e.g.,=20 apologies, plans for avoiding future = problems)

B.=20 Discuss the Problem with Parents
1. Explain how they can avoid exacerbating the problem =
2.=20 Mobilize them to work preventively with school

C. = Work=20 Toward Prevention of Further Occurrences (see I &=20 II)

Defining and Categorizing Discipline = Practices

Two mandates capture much of current practice:

(a) schools must teach self-discipline to students;=20

(b) teachers must learn to use disciplinary practices = effectively to=20 deal with misbehavior.=20

Knoff (l987) offers three definitions of discipline as applied = in=20 schools: "(a) ... punitive intervention; (b) ... a means of = suppressing or=20 eliminating inappropriate behavior, of teaching or reinforcing = appropriate=20 behavior, and of redirecting potentially inappropriate behavior = toward=20 acceptable ends; and (c) ... a process of self-control whereby the = (potentially) misbehaving student applies techniques that = interrupt=20 inapprop-riate behavior, and that replace it with acceptable = behavior". In=20 contrast to the first definition which specifies discipline as = punishment,=20 Knoff sees the other two as nonpunitive or as he calls them = "positive,=20 best-practices approaches."=20

Hyman, Flannagan, & Smith (1982) categorize models shaping=20 disciplinary practices into 5 groups:

  • psychodynamic-interpersonal models
  • behavioral models
  • sociological models
  • eclectic-ecological models
  • human-potential models

Wolfgang & Glickman (1986) group disciplinary practices in = terms of=20 a process-oriented framework:

  • relationship-listening models (e.g., Gordon's Teacher = Effectiveness=20 Training, values clarification approaches, transactional = analysis)
  • confronting-contracting models (e.g., Dreikurs' approach, = Glasser's=20 Reality Therapy)
  • rules/rewards-punishment (e.g., Canter's Assertive=20 Discipline)

Bear (1995) offers 3 categories in terms of the goals of the = practice=20 -- with a secondary nod to processes, strategies and techniques = used to=20 reach the goals:

  • preventive discipline models (e.g., models that stress = classroom=20 management, prosocial behavior, moral/character education, = social=20 problem solving, peer mediation, affective education and = communication=20 models)
  • corrective models (e.g., behavior management, Reality = Therapy)
  • treatment models (e.g., social skills training, aggression=20 replacement training, parent management training, family = therapy,=20 behavior therapy).

Logical Consequences

Guidelines for managing misbehavior usually stress that = discipline should=20 be reasonable, fair, and nondenigrating. Motivation theory stresses that = "positive, best-practice approaches" are disciplinary acts recipients = experience=20 as legitimate reactions that neither denigrate one's sense of worth nor = reduce=20 one's sense of autonomy. To these ends, discussions of classroom = management=20 practices usually emphasize establishing and administering logical = consequences.=20 This idea plays out best in situations where there are = naturally-occurring=20 consequences (e.g., if you touch a hot stove, you get burned).

In classrooms, there may be little ambiguity about the rules; = unfortunately,=20 the same often cannot be said about "logical" penalties. Even when the=20 consequence for a particular rule infraction has been specified ahead of = time,=20 its logic may be more in the mind of the teacher than in the eye of the=20 students. In the recipient's view, any act of discipline may be = experienced as=20 punitive -- unreasonable, unfair, denigrating, disempowering.=20

Basically, consequences involve depriving students of things they = want and/or=20 making them experience something they don't want. Consequences take the = form of=20 (a) removal/deprivation (e.g., loss of privileges, removal from an = activity),=20 (b) reprimands (e.g., public censure), (c) reparations (e.g., to = compensate for=20 losses caused by misbehavior), and (d) recantations (e.g., apologies, = plans for=20 avoiding future problems). For instance, teachers commonly deal with = acting out=20 behavior by removing a student from an activity. To the teacher, this = step=20 (often described as "time out") may be a logical way to stop the student = from=20 disrupting others by isolating him or her, or the logic may be that the = student=20 needs a cooling off period. It may be reasoned that (a) by misbehaving = the=20 student has shown s/he does not deserve the privilege of participating = (assuming=20 the student likes the activity) and (b) the loss will lead to improved = behavior=20 in order to avoid future deprivation.

Most teachers have little difficulty explaining their reasons for = using a=20 consequence. However, if the intent really is to have students perceive=20 consequences as logical and nondebilitating, it seems logical to = determine=20 whether the recipient sees the discipline as a legitimate response to=20 misbehavior. Moreover, it is well to recognize the difficulty of = administering=20 consequences in a way that minimizes the negative impact on a student's=20 perceptions of self. Although the intent is to stress that it is the = misbehavior=20 and its impact that are bad, the student can too easily experience the = process=20 as a characterization of her or him as a bad person.=20

Organized sports such as youth basketball and soccer offer a = prototype of an=20 established and accepted set of consequences administered with = recipient's=20 perceptions given major consideration. In these arenas, the referee is = able to=20 use the rules and related criteria to identify inappropriate acts and = apply=20 penalties; moreover, s/he is expected to do so with positive concern for = maintaining the youngster's dignity and engendering respect for all.

For discipline to be perceived as a logical consequence, steps must = be taken=20 to convey that a response is not a personally motivated act of power = (e.g., an=20 authoritarian action) and, indeed, is a rational and socially agreed = upon=20 reaction. Also, if the intent is a long-term reduction in future = misbehavior, it=20 may be necessary to take time to help students learn right from wrong, = to=20 respect others rights, and to accept responsibility.=20

From a motivational perspective, it is essential that logical = consequences=20 are based on understanding of a student's perceptions and are used in = ways that=20 minimize negative repercussions. To these ends, motivation theorists = suggest (a)=20 establishing a publicly accepted set of consequences to increase the = likelihood=20 they are experienced as socially just (e.g., reasonable, firm but fair) = and (b)=20 administering such consequences in ways that allow students to maintain = a sense=20 of integrity, dignity, and autonomy. These ends are best achieved under=20 conditions where students are "empowered" (e.g., are involved in = deciding how to=20 make improvements and avoid future misbehavior and have opportunities = for=20 positive involvement and reputation building at school).

Social Skills Training

Suppression of undesired acts does not necessarily lead to desired = behavior.=20 It is clear that more is needed than classroom management and = disciplinary=20 practices.=20

Is the answer social skills training? After all, poor social skills = are=20 identified as a symptom (a correlate) and contributing factor in a wide = range of=20 educational, psychosocial, and mental health problems.=20

Programs to improve social skills and interpersonal problem solving = are=20 described as having promise both for prevention and correction. However, = reviewers tend to be cautiously optimistic because studies to date have = found=20 the range of skills acquired are quite limited and generalizability and=20 maintenance of outcomes are poor. This is the case for training of = specific=20 skills (e.g., what to say and do in a specific situation), general = strategies=20 (e.g., how to generate a wider range of interpersonal problem-solving = options),=20 as well as efforts to develop cognitive-affective orientations (e.g., = empathy=20 training). Based on a review of social skills training over the past two = decades, Mathur and Rutherford (1996) conclude that individual studies = show=20 effectiveness, but outcomes continue to lack generalizability and social = validity. (While their focus is on social skills training for students = with=20 emotional and behavior disorders, their conclusions hold for most = populations.)=20

For a synthesis of curriculum content areas for fostering social and=20 emotional development, see Lessons Learned . = For a=20 comprehensive bibliography of articles, chapters, books, and programs on = social=20 skills and social competence of children and youth, see Quinn, Mathur, = and=20 Rutherford, 1996. Also, see Daniel Goleman's (1995) book on Emotional = Intelligence which is stimulating growing interest in ways to = facilitate=20 social and emotional competence.=20

Addressing Underlying Motivation

Beyond discipline and skills training is a need to address the roots = of=20 misbehavior, especially the underlying motivational bases for such = behavior.=20 Consider students who spend most of the day trying to avoid all or part = of the=20 instructional program. An intrinsic motivational interpretation of the = avoidance=20 behavior of many of these youngsters is that it reflects their = perception that=20 school is not a place where they experience a sense of competence, = autonomy, and=20 or relatedness to others. Over time, these perceptions develop into = strong=20 motivational dispositions and related patterns of misbehavior.

Misbehavior can reflect proactive (approach) or reactive (avoidance)=20 motivation. Noncooperative, disruptive, and aggressive behavior patterns = that=20 are proactive tend to be rewarding and satisfying to an individual = because the=20 behavior itself is exciting or because the behavior leads to desired = outcomes=20 (e.g., peer recognition, feelings of competence or autonomy). = Intentional=20 negative behavior stemming from such approach motivation can be viewed = as=20 pursuit of deviance.

Of course, misbehavior in the classroom often also is reactive, = stemming=20 from avoidance motivation. This behavior can be viewed as protective=20 reactions. Students with learning problems can be seen as motivated = to avoid=20 and to protest against being forced into situations in which they cannot = cope=20 effectively. For such students, many teaching and therapy situations are = perceived in this way. Under such circumstances, individuals can be = expected to=20 react by trying to protect themselves from the unpleasant thoughts and = feelings=20 that the situations stimulate (e.g., feelings of incompetence, loss of = autonomy,=20 negative relationships). In effect, the misbehavior reflects efforts to = cope and=20 defend against aversive experiences. The actions may be direct or = indirect and=20 include defiance, physical and psychological withdrawal, and = diversionary=20 tactics.=20

Interventions for such problems begin with major program changes. = From a=20 motivational perspective, the aims are to (a) prevent and overcome = negative=20 attitudes toward school and learning, (b) enhance motivational readiness = for=20 learning and overcoming problems,(c) maintain intrinsic motivation = throughout=20 learning and problem solving, and (d) nurture the type of continuing = motivation=20 that results in students engaging in activities away from school that = foster=20 maintenance, generalization, and expansion of learning and problem = solving.=20 Failure to attend to motivational concerns in a comprehensive, normative = way=20 results in approaching passive and often hostile students with practices = that=20 instigate and exacerbate problems. After making broad programmatic = changes to=20 the degree feasible, intervention with a misbehaving student involves = remedial=20 steps directed at underlying factors. For instance, with intrinsic = motivation in=20 mind, the following assessment questions arise:

In general, intrinsic motivational theory suggests that corrective=20 interventions for those misbehaving reactively requires steps designed = to reduce=20 reactance and enhance positive motivation for participating in an = intervention.=20 For youngsters highly motivated to pursue deviance (e.g., those who = proactively=20 engage in criminal acts), even more is needed. Intervention might focus = on=20 helping these youngsters identify and follow through on a range of = valued,=20 socially appropriate alternatives to deviant activity. From the = theoretical=20 perspective presented above, such alternatives must be capable of = producing=20 greater feelings of self-determination, competence, and relatedness than = usually=20 result from the youngster's deviant actions. To these ends, motivational = analyses of the problem can point to corrective steps for implementation = by=20 teachers, clinicians, parents, or students themselves.(For more on = approaching=20 misbehavior from a motivational perspective, see Adelman and Taylor, = 1990; 1993;=20 Deci & Ryan, 1985.)

Some Relevant References

Adelman, H.S., & Taylor, L. (1990). Intrinsic motivation and = school=20 misbehavior: Some intervention implications. Journal of Learning=20 Disabilities. 23, 541-550.

Adelman, H.S. & Taylor, L. (1993). Learning problems and = learning=20 disabilities: Moving forward. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Bear, G.G. (1995). Best practices in school discipline. In A. Thomas = & J.=20 Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology -- III. = Washington,=20 DC: National Association of School Psychologists.

Bauer, A.M., & Sapona, R.H. (1991). Managing classrooms to = facilitate=20 learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Deci, E.L. & Ryan, R.M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and=20 self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum Press.

Duncan, B.J. (1997). Character education: Reclaiming the social.=20 Educational Theory, 47, 119-126.

Elias, M.J. Gara, M.A., Schuyler, T.F., Branden-Muller, L.R., & = Sayette,=20 M.A. (1991). The promotion of social competence: Longitudinal study of a = preventive school-based program. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, = 61,=20 409-417.

Forness, S.R. & Kavale, K.A. (1996). Treating social skill = deficits in=20 children with learning disabilities: A meta-analysis of the research.=20 Learning Disability Quarterly, 19, 2-13.

Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional Intelligence. New York: Bantam = Books,=20 Inc.

Greenberg, M.T., Kusche, C.A., Cook, E.T., & Quamma, J.P. (1995). = Promoting emotional competence in school-aged children: The effects of = the PATHS=20 curriculum. Development and Psychopathology, 7.

Gresham, F.M. (1995) Best practices in social skills training. In = A=20 Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology -- = III=20 (pp.1021-1030). Washington, DC: National Association of School = Psychologists.

Hyman, I., Flanagan, D., & Smith, K. (l982). Discipline in the = schools.=20 In C.R. Reynolds & T.B. Gutkin (Eds.), The handbook of school=20 psychology (pp. 454-480). New York: Wiley.

Knoff, H.M. (l987). School-based interventions for discipline = problems. In=20 C.A. Maher & J.E. Zins (Eds.), Psychoeducational interventions in = the=20 schools (pp. 118-140). New York: Pergamon.

Mathur, S.R., & Rutherford, R.B. (1995). Is social skills = training=20 effective for students with emotional or behavioral disorders? Research = issues=20 and needs. Behavioral Disorders 22, 21-28.

Quinn, M.M., Mathur, S.R., & Rutherford, R.B. (1996). Social = skills=20 and social competence of children and youth: A comprehensive = bibliography of=20 articles, chapters, books, and programs. Tempe, AZ: Arizona State=20 University.=20

Wolfgang, C.H. & Glickman, C.D. (l986). Solving discipline = problems:=20 Strategies for classroom teachers (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn & = Bacon.

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School Mental Health=20 Project-UCLA
WebMaster: Perry Nelson mailto:smhp@ucla.edu=20
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